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Kerslake has also recommended that terror attack training should include “realistic contingencies for public involvement in casualty care, treatment and evacuation”.

The calls were based on research by Dr Chris Cocking, a crowd behaviour expert and Senior Lecturer in the University of 麻豆果冻传媒’s School of Health Sciences.

His research focused on the role of ‘zero-responders’ in relation to the 7/7 London Underground bombings and identified the public as a potential asset to the emergency services during major incidents.

Dr Cocking wrote: “Neglecting the potential spontaneous resilience of crowds in emergencies by the authorities could also be missing out on an opportunity to make use of a positive resource. The ability of people in emergencies to play a leadership role and coordinate mutual aid amongst survivors should not be underestimated.

“Rather than seeing the public as potential obstructions that need to be moved on, acknowledging and making provision for people’s willingness to help and direct others could provide the emergency services with a large pool of potential volunteers, who can act as ‘force multiplier’.”

Dr Chris Cocking

The Kerslake report said: “During the Review, the Panel has seen evidence that supports Cocking’s proposition and considers that members of the public undoubtedly acted as such a ‘force multiplier’ during the initial response activities in the foyer.

“The Panel was humbled to view CCTV footage which showed the heroic actions of some members of the public involved in the widespread provision of first aid and reassurance to the casualties as well as assisting in the portage of those casualties from the foyer to the Casualty Clearing Station on the concourse during the initial hour following the explosion.”

The report said during major incidents, the public will “likely become a key source of direct assistance for both the injured (by providing first aid and assisting evacuation) and for the emergency services (by enabling them to initiate and manage scene safety and casualty management priorities for all those affected, without being drawn into caring for individuals)”.

It concluded: “What the selfless actions of the multiple ‘zero’ and first responders in the foyer that night have highlighted so clearly, is that casualty care at, and evacuation from, incident sites should never be planned as something that only fully trained, and expensively equipped personnel should be relied upon to do.”